Coastal collection, also known as foraging, harvesting, gleaning or gathering, has been essential to the success of the human species but there has been little contemporary exploration of its ecological or social importance in developed economies. In this thesis, I begin by reviewing existing socio-ecological research into intertidal harvesting and previous attempts at engagement and management of collectors, before exploring the growing need for an innovative, or transformative, approach to future management.

Teasing the impact of collection activities from other shoreline activities has proved difficult by researchers, but there are growing concerns that collecting can have significant ecological impacts. There is evidence that, under certain conditions, even a single intense collection event can have long lasting effects on both the target species and habitat, whilst low level collection of multiple species over time can also have detrimental impacts to local ecological communities. Management of hand collection activities grounded in principles of ecological sustainability has often failed to get to implementation stage through lack of understanding of the activities being undertaken. If implemented, non-compliance from collectors is frequently a problem, driven by a lack of understanding from managers about the importance of the activities to the people undertaking them. Despite warnings that management strategies based solely on principles of ecological sustainability are unlikely to be successful, nor their enforcement cost-effective, few have attempted alternative management approaches, and collection activities remain largely misunderstood by, and beyond the reach of, policy makers. My thesis provides evidence to enhance the understanding of both the socioeconomic and ecological importance of coastal collection activities, paving the way to a more holistic and inclusive management approach.

Despite significant knowledge gaps, policy makers in Wales are increasingly interested in managing intertidal collection activities. Until now, no peer reviewed research has specifically focussed on how collecting in the UK links to people’s well-being, which may offer information to guide future management approaches. Driven by policy interests, coupled with the requirements of the Well-being of Future Generations Act (Wales) 2015, I undertook research with the coastal collectors of Wales. Questionnaires revealed what is collected, motivations underpinning collection activities, and how engaging in coastal collection relates to the well-being of collectors. Ninety-one coastal taxa were collected by respondents, with 33 different taxa considered of great importance to collectors. People were motivated to collect intertidal resources for provisioning purposes, for example collecting mussels to eat, crabs for angling bait or cockles for money. The experience of collecting was also important. Many reported collecting for fun, thrill, and excitement, or as an excuse to enjoy the environment and fresh air. Some collected for solitude whilst others as a social activity. Analysis revealed complexities in the relationship between collection activities and human well-being. For example, the act of collecting reduced anxiety levels of collectors, those of lower well-being were more likely motivated to collect for provisioning purposes whereas those of higher well-being were motivated by experiential factors.

My second data chapter further explores the experiential meanings behind collection activities through thematic analysis of interviews with coastal collectors. Although all participants acknowledged some provisioning motivation, there were three other intertwined themes through which participants were benefitting from their activities – personal identity, nature connectedness and overall health and well-being. Benefits are discussed in relation to psychological theories of biophilia, attention restoration, self-actualisation, and my concept of a modern hunter-gatherer persona. Overarching concerns about the sustainability of both stocks and the art of collecting were expressed by most collectors, with many feeling misunderstood or ignored by managers and policy makers. My qualitative research revealed the importance of coastal collection for some people, and their dependence on it. This chapter provides a foundation for tailored engagement with different types of collectors as Wales strives for sustainable use of coastal resources for current and future generations.

The challenge of assessing the anthropogenic impact of intertidal collection on rocky shores led me to develop, in my final chapter, a suite of experiments designed to ascertain human impacts on sheltered, tide swept shores. Any disturbance of this habitat is usually attributed to people turning rocks, often for the collection of crabs. My use of novel technology to tease natural from anthropogenic disturbance demonstrates that the disturbance of tide swept boulders is little understood, and can occur via natural, peripatetic, movement in high tidal velocities, in addition to people turning rocks at low water.

Overall, my thesis takes an interdisciplinary approach to address some of the social and ecological knowledge gaps that can feed conflict between collectors, policy makers and managers. I suggest new framings to persistent management conundrums, beyond traditional ecological and subsistence narratives, that will enhance understanding of, and future engagement with, intertidal collectors whilst promoting advocacy for future management amongst collectors themselves.